CodeBot: Design, Content Validation, and Usability Evaluation of a Progressive-Based Computational Thinking Game for Primary Education
Keywords:
Computational thinking, serious games, primary education, visual programmingAbstract
CodeBot: Computational Thinking Challenge is a progression-based serious game for upper-primary learners designed to address gaps between computational-thinking theory and classroom practice. It contains six levels and 18 progressive tasks covering sequencing, direction, debugging, procedures, repetition, optimisation, and contextualised problem-solving. A sequential design-and-development approach was modelled through expert validation and usability testing. Eight experts evaluated 35 criteria, producing an S-CVI/Ave of .950. A pilot with 30 learners aged 10–12 yielded a usability score of 82.60 and an 88.89% completion rate. Findings indicated strong feedback design but highlighted the need for scaffolding in procedures, repetition, and orientation during learning
References
Brennan, K., & Resnick, M. (2012, April). New frameworks for studying and assessing the development of computational thinking. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting, Vancouver, Canada.
Giannakoulas, A., & Xinogalos, S. (2024). Studying the effects of educational games on cultivating computational thinking skills to primary school students: A systematic literature review. Journal of Computers in Education, 11, 1283-1325. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-023-00300-z
Gundersen, S. W., & Lampropoulos, G. (2025). Using serious games and digital games to improve students’ computational thinking and programming skills in K–12 education: A systematic literature review. Technologies, 13(3), 113. https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies13030113.
Hoadley, C., & Campos, F. C. (2022). Design-based research: What it is and why it matters to studying online learning. Educational Psychologist, 57(3), 207–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2022.2079128.
Ma, J., Zhang, Y., Zhu, Z., Zhao, S., & Wang, Q. (2023). Game-based learning for students’ computational thinking: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 61(7), 1430–1463. https://doi.org/10.1177/07356331231178948.
Mokkink, L. B., Herbelet, S., Tuinman, P. R., & Terwee, C. B. (2025). Content validity: Judging the relevance, comprehensiveness, and comprehensibility of an outcome measurement instrument—A COSMIN perspective. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 185, 111879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2025.111879.
Palop, B., Díaz, I., Rodríguez-Muñiz, L. J., & Santaengracia, J. J. (2025). Redefining computational thinking: A holistic framework and its implications for K–12 education. Education and Information Technologies, 30, 13385–13410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-13297-4.
Putnam, C., Puthenmadom, M., Cuerdo, M. A., Wang, W., & Paul, N. (2020). Adaptation of the System Usability Scale for user testing with children. In Extended Abstracts of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3334480.3382840.
Santaengracia, J. J., Palop, B., & Rodríguez-Muñiz, L. J. (2026). Computational thinking in K–6 education: A scoping review of instructional practices. Journal of Computers in Education, 13, 983–1016. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-025-00380-z.
Shute, V. J., Sun, C., & Asbell-Clarke, J. (2017). Demystifying computational thinking. Educational Research Review, 22, 142–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2017.09.003.
Tikva, C., & Tambouris, E. (2021). Mapping computational thinking through programming in K–12 education: A conceptual model based on a systematic literature review. Computers & Education, 162, 104083. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104083.
Vlachogianni, P., & Tselios, N. (2022). Perceived usability evaluation of educational technology using the System Usability Scale: A systematic review. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 54(3), 392–409. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2020.1867938.
Wing, J. M. (2006). Computational thinking. Communications of the ACM, 49(3), 33–35. https://doi.org/10.1145/1118178.1118215.
Yusoff, M. S. B. (2019). ABC of content validation and content validity index calculation. Education in Medicine Journal, 11(2), 49–54. https://doi.org/10.21315/eimj2019.11.2.6.
Zhang, Y., Song, Y., & Cutumisu, M. (2026). Assessing computational thinking skills in K–12 education: A systematic review. Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 31, 1953–2002. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-025-09938-3.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 KOK MING GOH
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
The authors of MJII retain copyright to the content of the articles.
The content is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) 4.0 which allows content to be copied, adapted, displayed, distributed, republished, or otherwise re-used for any purpose, including for adaptation and commercial use provided the content is attributed without any restriction.
Authors Rights
The Journal grants you the following non-exclusive rights, subject to giving propoer acknowledgement to the original journal. The authors may:
(i) to reprint or reproduce the contribution, in whole or in part, in any publication of your interest.
(ii) to use material for teaching purposes; including availability of the matarial in academic course.
(iii) to post a copy of the contribution on your personal or institutional web server, provided that the server is non-commercial and there are no charges for access, and
(iv) to deposit a copy of the contribution in a non-commercial data repository maintained by an institution of which you are a member.
Author's Agreement
Author(s) guarantee the journal the following:
(i) that the contribution is their original work;
(ii) that it contains, no matter what, content that is defamatory or is otherwise unlawful or which invades rights of privacy or publicity or infringes any proprietary rights (including copyright);
(iii) that the contribution has not been published elsewhere in whole or in part and that no agreement to publish is outstanding other than this agreement. Author(s) agree to be responsible and hold the journal, its editors, staff and affiliate organizations harmless against any claims arising from or related to the breach or inaccuracy of any of the guarantees listed above.
Disclaimer
The editorial team of the MJII and the publication team of Academica Press Solutions share no responsibility regarding the views and opinions expressed by the authors.
The content published in MJII is Open Access and can be shared, adapted, reproduced, reprinted, after appropriate acknowledgment and giving due credit to the author(s) work.
